Scientia Geographica Sinica  2015 , 35 (10): 1265-1271

Orginal Article

基于居民个体的城市虚-实空间关联指标研究——以南京市为例

翟青1, 甄峰23, 陈映雪4

1.南京邮电大学地理与生物信息学院,江苏 南京 210046
2.南京大学建筑与城市规划学院,江苏 南京 210093
3. 南京大学人文地理研究中心,江苏 南京 210093
4.上海市规划编审中心,上海 200001

Index of Space Relevance Between Physical and Network Spaces on A Micro-level Basis: A Case Study of Metropolitan Nanjing

ZHAI Qing1, ZHEN Feng23, CHEN Ying-xue4

1.College of Geographic and Biologic Information, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210046,China
2.School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093,China
3.Human Geography Research Center, Nanjing University, Nanjing,Jiangsu 210093,China
4.Shanghai Planning Inventory and Regulation Center, Shanghai 200001, China

中图分类号:  F590

文献标识码:  A

文章编号:  1000-0690(2015)10-1265-07

通讯作者:  通讯作者:甄 峰,教授。E-mail:zhenfeng@nju.edu.cn

收稿日期: 2014-06-25

修回日期:  2014-12-25

网络出版日期:  2015-10-25

版权声明:  2015 《地理科学》编辑部 本文是开放获取期刊文献,在以下情况下可以自由使用:学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等,但不允许用于商业目的.

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金项目 (40971094)、江苏省社科项目(2011ZDIXM002)、南京邮电大学信息文科建设工程项目(XJ03201)资助

作者简介:

作者简介:翟 青(1984-),女,江苏南京人,博士研究生,研究方向为移动信息时代城市空间结构。E-mail:kuertan@163.com

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摘要

信息技术对城市空间结构的影响一直是地理学关注的话题。随着信息技术的革新及其在社会生活中的普及应用,地理学者开始将研究视角从空间转向网络用户。引入信息科学领域的“地理关联”概念,通过南京居民问卷调查获得973个样本数据,采用结构方程模型分析,尝试从微观个体角度探索基于居民个体的虚-实空间的关联指标。结果发现:居民信息化程度、居民信息化认知、居民信息化习惯、居民流动性是微观层面虚-实空间关联的主要指标;居民流动性是空间关联最重要的衡量指标,其次是居民信息化认知、居民信息化习惯、居民信息化程度;工作地是最能展示网络空间与实体空间紧密关联的场所类型。

关键词: 信息技术 ; 网络空间 ; 实体空间 ; 空间关联 ; 结构方程模型

Abstract

With the continuous penetration of information and communication technology (ICT) in today’s society as well as its progressive development, research into the urban spatial structure influenced by ICT has attracted the attention of geographers. As ICT is integrated into the various aspects of the life and profession of individuals, each person has become an important medium for exploring the relationship between physical and network spaces. Consequently, research focus has shifted from such spaces to Internet users. Geographical space research is influenced by the rapid changes in social phenomena. Thus, new data, methods, and ideas are needed to further explore the relationship between network and physical spaces at the micro level.This article introduces the novel notion of “geography relevance” from the field of information science to the space research on information geography. We determine the level of cyberspace activity of urban residents from the micro-perspective of individuals and explore the index of space relevance between network and physical spaces. The aim is to highlight the role and position of the level of resident information and mobility in space research. With the city of Nanjing as an example, we conduct an urban resident survey using a questionnaire and obtain 973 samples for the database. Three indicators, namely, residence, workplace, and mobility network activities are adopted to measure the relevance between physical and network spaces. An index of resident information is constructed from two aspects: information level of urban residents and mobility. The index mainly includes the willingness of residents to share information, the degree of information sharing, residents’ information cognition, the residents’ habit of information sharing, the devices used for information sharing, information dissemination and acquisition, and mobility. The conclusions are as following . First, the index of space relevance between network and physical spaces at the micro level includes the degree of information sharing, residents’ information cognition, residents’ habit of information sharing, and mobility (p< 0.05). Second, mobility is the most important metric in space relevance, followed by residents’ information cognition, residents’ habit of information sharing, and the degree of information sharing. Third, the workplace is the most typical setting that demonstrates the close link between network and physical spaces. and enriches the perceived function of physical spaces.

Keywords: information technology ; network space ; physical space ; space relevance ; structural equation model

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翟青, 甄峰, 陈映雪. 基于居民个体的城市虚-实空间关联指标研究——以南京市为例[J]. , 2015, 35(10): 1265-1271 https://doi.org/

ZHAI Qing, ZHEN Feng, CHEN Ying-xue. Index of Space Relevance Between Physical and Network Spaces on A Micro-level Basis: A Case Study of Metropolitan Nanjing[J]. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2015, 35(10): 1265-1271 https://doi.org/

信息技术的自身革新及其在社会生活中的普及应用,使得信息技术影响下的城市空间结构研究成为地理学关注的热点话题,并在近30 a的研究中积累了丰富的成果。目前,研究主要集中在:① 信息技术与城市居民时空行为活动的关系研究。二者主要存在替代、互补、修正、中立等关系,但是,二者关系因行为活动类型的不同而存在差异[1~6]。② 网络空间的特征研究。学者们以搜索引擎、社交网络为研究对象,探索数字场所、网络景观和网络社会空间的特征[7~11]。③ 网络空间与实体空间的关系研究。无处不在的网络和应用服务促进了网络空间与实体空间的融合关系,网络空间根植于社会、实体空间。但是,网络空间对实体空间的影响程度有待研究[12~14]。总之,信息技术融入城市居民生产和生活的方方面面,个人成为研究虚-实空间关系的重要媒介,地理学者已将研究视角从空间转向网络用户。基于网络用户的虚-实空间互动关系的探索将是研究的新的重点与难点。

本文将信息科学领域的“地理关联”(Geographic Relevance)概念引入到信息地理学的空间研究中,尝试在微观层面探索虚-实空间的关联指标。地理关联是指信息需求(注意力跨度)和地理信息对象(影响区)之间的时空延伸关系[15],表述为实体与实际使用内涵之间的关联强度[16]。网络空间中的信息流、实体空间中的人流与实体空间功能内涵的变化交织在一起,网络用户的流动性凸显了信息关联中地理维度的重要性。地理关联信息结合移动信息化、用户流动性,解决时空扩展的信息需求。因此,地理关联将地理信息检索延伸到实体流动性和实体空间内涵研究,地理关联被认为是空间的延伸。

目前,信息科学领域的地理关联研究仍处于关联指标的实证探索阶段。学者们采用深度访谈和问卷调查的方法判定特定人群的地理关联指标。Barry发现:用户的经验、背景、知识水平、个人喜好等是关联判断的重要情境因素,信息环境因被置于更广大的背景环境中[17]。Bierig认为区位、时间和时效性三要素在关联模型中互动是必要的[18]。Xu构建关联的结构方程模型,提出时效性、新颖性、可靠性、可理解性、范围5个指标[19]。Sabbata综述关联指标文献,将已有指标分为4大类:属性、地理本质、可获得信息、表征[20]。研究存在指标种类多样、意义重叠的问题。

地理关联关注网络用户的信息需求与网络信息、实体空间产生的联系,本文的城市虚-实空间关联研究则关注城市居民信息化水平对网络空间活跃程度、实体空间功能内涵的影响,并最终确定影响虚-实空间关联的指标。本文尝试解释居民流动性和信息化水平在虚-实空间关系研究中的地位和作用,说明虚-实空间关联是由居民个体的网络行为活动来维系的,网络行为活动丰富了主要实体空间类型的功能内涵。

1 指标选择与研究案例、方法

1.1 城市虚-实空间关联指标的选择

1.1.1 城市居民信息指标

居民的网络行为活动扩增了网络空间的规模,同时,信息设备从网络空间收集地理信息,以及信息设备之间传递信息,都影响着居民对实体空间的感知。因此,居民的信息活动丰富了实体空间的功能内涵。流动状态是城市居民基于无线网络和信息设备,维系虚-实空间关联的一个特殊情况。“新流动范式”强调无处不在的网络覆盖,注重移动信息技术与流动性之间的衔接关系[21,22]

因此,城市居民信息指标主要有:① 居民信息化意愿:城市居民愿意使用信息设备的强烈程度。它由城市居民对普通手机、智能手机、3G手机、台式电脑、笔记本电脑、平板电脑、上网本的购买意愿等指标进行观测。② 居民信息化程度:城市居民拥有和使用信息设备的情况。它由居民首次购买普通手机、智能手机、3G手机、台式电脑、笔记本电脑、平板电脑、上网本的时间及购买数量等指标进行观测。③ 居民信息化认知:城市居民对信息设备和网络的认知水平。认知关联强调用户的知识状态和信息需求之间的关系,它由手机选择因素、智能手机优势、居民自身信息知识、信息知识学习途径、网络信息检索优点等指标进行观测。④ 居民信息化习惯:城市居民使用网络应用程序的偏好和多样性。它由居民的手机、电脑功能应用习惯和网页浏览习惯等指标进行观测。⑤ 信息设备使用:城市居民使用信息设备的频率。它由居民的普通手机、智能手机、3G手机、笔记本电脑、平板电脑、上网本的使用频率等指标进行观测。⑥ 信息发布与获取:城市居民信息交流的方式。它由居民发布、获取信息分别对应的工具和渠道等指标进行观测。⑦ 居民流动性:城市居民的实体流动性。它由居民通勤、出行的交通方式等指标进行观测(表1)。假设以上指标均对虚-实空间关联产生正向影响。

1.1.2 虚-实空间关联指标

由于网络空间根植于实体空间,本文按照实体空间的类型将指标分为:居住地网络活动、工作地网络活动、流动中的网络活动,以此说明虚-实空间的关联。已有文献证实,由于信息技术的使用,居住地、工作地、流动中的场所意义和重要性随之提升[23~27]。居住地的网络活动由在家网络工作时长、在家网络娱乐时长、在家总体上网时长等指标进行观测。工作地的网络活动由公司网络类型、上班使用网络时长等指标进行观测。流动中的网络活动由信息设备使用类型、出行场所倾向、信息设备携带情况等指标进行观测(表1)。

表1   城市虚-实空间关联指标体系的描述

Table 1   Description of the index system of spatial relevance

空间关联指标观测变量赋值说明
居民信息化意愿普通手机购买意愿
智能手机购买意愿
3G手机购买意愿
台式电脑购买意愿
笔记本电脑购买意愿
平板电脑购买意愿
上网本购买意愿


非常不愿意=1,不愿意=2,一般=3,愿意=4,非常愿意=5
居民信息化程度普通手机首次购买时间
智能手机首次购买时间
3G手机首次购买时间
台式电脑首次购买时间
笔记本电脑首次购买时间
平板电脑首次购买时间
上网本首次购买时间
普通手机购买数量
智能手机购买数量
3G手机购买数量
台式电脑购买数量
笔记本电脑购买数量
平板电脑购买数量
上网本购买数量
没有购买=1,2010年以后=2,2006~2009年=3,2001~2005年=4,2000年以前=5





按照实际数量统计
居民信息化认知手机选择因素使用功能=1,网络稳定及覆盖率=2,两者都考虑=3
智能手机优势手机上网速度=1,手机上网的应用和内容=2,两者都考虑=3
居民自身信息知识非常不熟悉=1,不熟悉=2,一般=3,熟悉=4,非常熟悉=5
信息知识学习途径向年轻人学=1,向同龄人学=2,自学=3
网络信息检索优点可获得性、可靠性、精度和深度、实时性、新颖性分别赋值1
居民信息化习惯手机功能应用习惯
电脑功能应用习惯
浏览网页习惯
即时聊天、网络音频、网络视频、网络文本、网络游戏、社交网络、网络邮箱分别赋值1
信息设备使用普通手机使用频率
智能手机使用频率
3G手机使用频率
笔记本电脑使用频率
平板电脑使用频率
上网本使用频率


经常使用=5,偶尔使用=3,不使用=1
信息发布与获取发布信息工具不使用电脑和手机=1,使用电脑或手机=3,使用电脑和手机=5
获取信息工具同上
发布信息渠道微博、QQ空间、博客、社交网站、其他分别赋值1
获取信息渠道网上查询为1,否则为0
居民流动性通勤交通方式
出行交通方式
步行、自行车、电动车、公交车、出租车、自驾车、地铁、班车分别赋值1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
居住地网络活动在家上网时长
在家上网娱乐时长
在家上网工作时长
2 h以内=1,2~4 h=2,4~6 h=3,6~8 h=4,8~10 h=5,10~12 h=6,12 h以上=7
工作地网络活动工作地网络类型没有网络=0,企业内网=1,外网=2
使用网络时长没有上网=0,2 h以内=1,2~4 h=2,4~6 h=3,6~8 h=4,8~10 h=5,10~12 h=6,12 h以上=7
移动中网络活动信息设备使用类型笔记本电脑、平板电脑、上网本、3G上网卡、普通手机、智能手机、3G手机各赋值1
出行场所倾向倾向于去没有无线网的地方=1,无所谓=3,倾向于去有无线网的地方=5
信息设备携带情况普通手机、3G智能手机、笔记本电脑、平板电脑、上网本分别赋值1

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1.2 研究案例与数据

南京是全国首批“6+1个城市”(南京、上海、杭州、广州、深圳、厦门、北京)之一,率先推进移动通信进入4G时代。信息化的快速发展必将对南京的城市虚-实空间互动产生影响,具有一定的研究价值。因此,本文选择南京作为调查研究的案例地。

研究数据来源于2011年7~8月的城市居民入户调查,共发放问卷1 005份,回收1 002份,其中有效问卷973份,有效率为97.1%。调研样本以中青年、中等收入人群为主(表2)。问卷内容按照虚-实空间关联指标来设计。移动信息技术技术更大程度地放松时空的束缚,与无线网络衔接越好的信息设备展现出越高的流动性[28,29]。因此,当赋值各观测变量的时候,便携式信息设备得分高于固定信息设备,网络偏好得分高于非网络偏好(表1)。

表2   样本描述性统计

Table 2   Descriptive statistics of the samples

变量类别样本数(个)百分比(%)变量类别样本数(个)百分比(%)
性别男(X1)483
490
475
49.6
50.4
48.8
职业类型生产性服务业(Z1)401
127
155
41.2
13.1
15.9
女(X2)生活性服务业(Z2)
传统制造业(Z3)
年龄(岁)30以下(N1)
31~40(N2)24024.7先进制造业(Z4)495.0
41~50(N3)15115.5学生(Z5)12913.3
51~60(N4)606.2退休、待业、失业(Z6)11211.5
60以上(N5)474.8平均月收入(元)0~1000(S1)15916.3
就业状态充分就业(J1)64766.61001~2000(S2)17317.8
半就业或准就业(J2)828.52001~3000(S3)21722.3
待业(J3)262.83001~5000(S4)25526.2
失业(J4)131.35001~10000(S5)13113.5
退休(J5)737.510001~20000(S6)242.5
学生(J6)12913.320000以上(S7)1414.4

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1.3 研究方法

首先,本文分别采用熵值法和层次分析法确定各观测变量的权重,再根据综合权重(取值0.5)计算各指标的最终值。然后,采用方差分析,以居民社会经济属性为分类变量,分析各个空间关联指标的特征。最后,通过结构方程模型,探索外生变量和内生变量之间的关联,反映微观层面城市居民信息化水平对虚-实空间关联的影响。结构方程模型(SEM)具有理论先验性,可同时处理测量与分析问题[30]。如果指标变量是量表中数个测量题项分数的加总,而非单一题项,此种路径分析被称为观察变量路径分析(PA-OV模型),是一种没有包含任何潜在变量的结构方程模型。

本研究在SPSS 18.0中建立了包含973个样本的数据库,并导入AMOS17.0构建结构方程模型。采取极大似然法(Maximum Likelihood,ML)进行估算,通过路径系数反映外生变量(居民信息化意愿、居民信息化程度、居民信息化认知、居民信息化习惯、信息设备使用、信息发布与获取、居民流动性)和内生变量(居住地网络活动、工作地网络活动、流动中网络活动)之间的关系,路径系数绝对值反映内生变量和外生变量的相关程度。研究中只考虑外生变量和内生变量之间的路径关系,不引入潜变量,因此,结构方程模型表达为:

y=By+Γx+ξ(1)

式中:y是内生变量;x是外生变量;B是内生变量间的关系, Γ是外生变量对内生变量的影响,均由随机效应矩阵表示; ξ是结构方程的残差项,反映y在方程中未能解释的部分。

2 城市空间关联指标分析

2.1 城市居民信息化特征

根据居民社会经济属性,方差分析空间关联指标,发现以下特征:① 女性受访者在信息化程度(p<0.01)、信息化认知(p<0.001)和设备使用(p<0.05)等方面高于男性,男性受访者在居住地的网络活动多于女性(p<0.05)。② 年龄说明40岁以下中青年群体是信息化水平最高的人群,随着年龄的增长,信息化水平不断下降。由于办公信息化趋势,处于工作年龄段的人们在工作地都保持较活跃的网络活动(p<0.001)。③ 随着月收入的增多,居民信息化程度、居民信息化认知、居民信息化习惯、信息设备使用、信息发布与获取、工作地网络活动等指标均呈“U”型分布。由于,低收入人群是低端信息产品消费的主力军,在一定程度上弥补了他们与高收入群体的信息鸿沟。④ 职业类型对居民信息化意愿、居民信息化程度、居民信息化认知、居民信息化习惯、信息设备使用、信息发布与获取、居住地网络活动、工作地网络活动有显著影响(p<0.01)。⑤ 充分就业人群与学生的信息化水平较高,在居住地和工作地网络活动较多,半就业和待业人群在居住地的网络活动较多(p<0.001)。

2.2 结构方程模型结果

2.2.1 模型拟合性检验

建立初始模型进行反复试验和修正,得到自由度为3,卡方值为6.193,P值为0.103(大于0.05),证明模型可信。运用AMOS统计软件对城市空间关联指标模型进行拟合度检验。分析发现:RMR值为0.002,GFI值为0.999,AGFI值为0.977,RMSEA值为0.033,NFI值为0.997,RFI值为0.951,IFI值为0.998,TLI值为0.974,CFI值为0.998(表3)。各指标均在理想值范围内,显示模型具有较好的对数据的拟合能力。

表3   地理关联指标模型拟合度检验

Table 3   Goodness of fit indices of criteria of geographic relevance model

拟合指数绝对拟合指数相对拟合指数信息指数
RMRGFIAGFIRMSEANFIRFIIFITLICFIAIC
理想值<0.05>0.90>0.90<0.05>0.90>0.90>0.90>0.90>0.90越接近饱和模型越好
假设模型0.0020.9990.9770.0330.9970.9510.9980.9740.998110.193
饱和模型0.0001.0001.0001.0001.000110.000
独立模型0.0470.6960.6290.2050.0000.0000.0000.0000.0001899.713

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2.2.2 模拟结果

模型显示外变量和内变量之间仅存在直接效应,路径系数绝对值的大小反映出不同外变量对虚-实空间关联的影响程度(表4)。本文提出的假设得到部分验证:居民信息化认知、居民信息化习惯、居民信息化程度、居民流动性对虚-实空间关联具有显著影响,但是,影响在不同实体空间类型中存在差异(图1);在路径分析中考虑居民信息化意愿、信息设备使用、信息发布与获取对内变量的影响(p>0.05),将导致模型整体不合理。

居民信息化认知的路径作用显示,居民信息化认知每提升1个单位,工作地网络活动相应增加0.101个单位,流动中网络活动增加0.090个单位,而居住地的网络活动减少0.145个单位。居民信息化认知的提升促进他们在工作地和流动中的网络活动,抑制他们在居住地的网络活动。

路径作用显示,居民信息化习惯每提升1个单位,居住地网络活动相应增加 0.175个单位,工作地网络活动减少0.087个单位。它对居住地网络活动有正向影响,对工作地网络活动有负向影响,对流动中网络活动影响不显著。

居民信息化程度的路径作用显示,它仅对流动中网络活动有正向影响。居民信息化程度增加1个单位,流动中的网络活动增长0.108个单位。

居民流动性的路径作用显示,居民流动性每提升1个单位,居住地的网络活动相应增加0.064个单位,工作地网络活动相应增加0.178个单位,流动中网络活动则增加0.332个单位。它对居住地、工作地、流动中的网络活动都有正向影响,对流动中网络活动的影响程度最大,证实了流动性与信息技术之间相互促进的关系。

3 结论与讨论

在网络空间的影响下,实体空间已经超越了场所空间的传统含义,表现出更丰富的功能内涵。地理关联强调个人的主观与客观因素在虚-实空间关联中的作用。为了探索基于居民个体的虚-实空间关联,本文以南京市为例,从微观视角验证了10个指标的特征及因果关系。本文采用方差分析和结构方程模型的路径分析得出以下结论:① 居民流动性是最重要的虚-实空间关联衡量指标,其次是居民信息化认知、居民信息化习惯、居民信息化程度。居民信息化意愿、信息设备使用、信息发布与获取在模型中考虑不成立。居民流动性对虚-实空间关联具有正向影响,对意义场所的影响由大到小依次是:流动状态下(0.332)、工作地(0.178)、居住地(0.064)。学术界已经形成共识:信息技术的使用促进个人的实体流动性,且影响随使用信息技术的手段不同而不同。本文从相反定向关系上,再次证明信息技术与流动性的互补关系。② 居民社会经济属性对居民信息指标的影响是显著且普遍的,尤其是居民信息化认知和居民信息化程度(p<0.01);但是,对居民流动性和流动中的网络活动没有显著影响。③ 居民社会经济属性对工作地网络活动的影响大于对居住地网络活动的影响。工作地网络活动受到年龄、月收入、职业类型、就业状态等因素(p<0.001)的影响,居住地网络活动受到性别(p<0.05)、职业类型和就业状态(p<0.001)的影响。

表4   外生潜变量对内生潜变量的直接效应

Table 4   Direct effect between exogenous variables and endogenous variables

外生标量直接效应居民信息化意愿居民信息化程度居民信息化认知居民信息化习惯信息设备使用信息发布与获取居民流动性
居住地的网络活动0.0220.055-0.145**0.175**-0.0170.0650.064*
工作地的网络活动0.0180.0470.101**-0.087*0.0490.0700.178**
流动中的网络活动-0.0280.108*0.090*0.29-0.082-0.0330.332**

注:以上数值均为标准化后的值;*表示在0.05及以上水平显著;**表示在0.01及以上水平极显著。

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图1   内生潜变量与外生潜变量之间的直接效应路径

Fig.1   The direct effect between endogenous variables and exogenous variables

居民个体的网络活动本质上是一种信息流,尽管,管理精英主导流空间的空间组织,但是,伴随着居民个体的信息化水平提升,其网络活动的规模效益逐步显现。所以,基于居民个体网络活动的研究将有助于重新定义城市规模对流空间的意义和影响。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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[J].Area,2000,32(2):145-156.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4762.2000.tb00125.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Summary This study explores gender differences in space-time constraints and their impact on women's and men's activity-travel patterns from a time-geographic perspective. Using a travel diary data set collected in Columbus, Ohio (USA), the time-budget and fixity constraints of three population subgroups are examined. This paper concludes that space-time constraints have a significant impact on individual's activity-travel patterns.
[29] Henderson T, Kotz D, Abyzov I.

The changing usage of a mature campus-wide wireless network

[J].Computer Networks,2008,52(14):2690-2712.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2008.05.003      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) are now commonplace on many academic and corporate campuses. As &ldquo;Wi-Fi&rdquo; technology becomes ubiquitous, it is increasingly important to understand trends in the usage of these networks. This paper analyzes an extensive network trace from a mature 802.11 WLAN, including more than 550 access points and 7000 users over seventeen weeks. We employ several measurement techniques, including syslog messages, telephone records, SNMP polling and tcpdump packet captures. This is the largest WLAN study to date, and the first to look at a mature WLAN. We compare this trace to a trace taken after the network&rsquo;s initial deployment two years prior.</p><p id="">We found that the applications used on the WLAN changed dramatically, with significant increases in peer-to-peer and streaming multimedia traffic. Despite the introduction of a Voice over IP (VoIP) system that includes wireless handsets, our study indicates that VoIP has been used little on the wireless network thus far, and most VoIP calls are made on the wired network.</p><p id="">We saw greater heterogeneity in the types of clients used, with more embedded wireless devices such as PDAs and mobile VoIP clients. We define a new metric for mobility, the &ldquo;session diameter&rdquo;. We use this metric to show that embedded devices have different mobility characteristics than laptops, and travel further and roam to more access points. Overall, users were surprisingly non-mobile, with half remaining close to home about 98% of the time.</p>
[30] 邱皓政.

结构方程模式——LISREL的理论、技术与应用

[M].台北:双叶书廊,2005.

[本文引用: 1]     

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