地理科学  2019 , 39 (2): 325-333 https://doi.org/10.13249/j.cnki.sgs.2019.02.017

Orginal Article

德国汉堡生物医药集群研发和商务知识的网络结构与空间流动

许吉黎, 杨帆, 薛德升

中山大学地理科学与规划学院, 广东 广州 510275

Differentiated Knowledge Bases, Knowledge Networks, and Spatial Flows: Evidence from the Biomedical Cluster in Hamburg, Germany

Xu Jili, Yang Fan, Xue Desheng

School of Geography and Planning, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, China

中图分类号:  K902

文献标识码:  A

文章编号:  1000-0690(2019)02-0325-09

通讯作者:  通讯作者:薛德升,教授。E-mail: eesxds@mail.sysu.edu.cn

收稿日期: 2017-11-20

修回日期:  2018-03-11

网络出版日期:  2019-02-20

版权声明:  2019 《地理科学》编辑部 本文是开放获取期刊文献,在以下情况下可以自由使用:学术研究、学术交流、科研教学等,但不允许用于商业目的.

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金国际(地区)合作与交流项目(41320104001)、中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金项目(17lgjc04)资助

作者简介:

作者简介:许吉黎(1989-),男,安徽宣城人,博士研究生,主要研究方向为城市地理与区域经济发展。E-mail: xujili0728@163.com

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摘要

以德国汉堡生物医药集群为例,基于研发、商务两类人才的社会网络和空间流动,探讨不同认识视角、不同类型知识溢出的空间特征及形成机制。研究发现:不同认识视角下知识溢出对地理距离的敏感性存在差异,知识流动相较于知识网络更加依赖地理邻近性。不同类型知识的溢出具有差异化的空间需求,研发和商务知识溢出在多尺度空间上表现出强度和结构的异质性。 以大学、研究机构、产业协会和跨国企业为中心的地方产学研合作体系,创新能力均衡的国家城市体系以及发达国家之间的技术和商业合作推动知识网络的形成。分流教育和空间均衡的人才培养体系,国内充分的人才空间流动以及西欧北美地区的人才环流促进知识的空间流动。

关键词: 产业集群 ; 创新 ; 知识网络 ; 知识流动 ; 知识基础 ; 德国

Abstract

Knowledge spillover driven by industrial clusters has been considered as a key underpinning for boosting regional innovation. This article takes a case study of the biomedical cluster in Hamburg, Germany, examining social networks and spatial flow of both R&D talents and business talents in order to discuss the geographical features and formation mechanisms of knowledge spillover based on different angles and knowledge bases respectively. Empirical results indicate that: 1) Sensitivity to spatial distance of knowledge spillover based on different perspectives are differentiated. In contrast to knowledge network, knowledge flow to a greater extent relies on geographical proximity. 2) Geographical requirements of knowledge spillover of different knowledge bases differ from each other. Scientific knowledge spillovers and business knowledge spillovers are remarkably different at multi-scales with respect to linking intensity and spatial structure. 3) Local Production-Study-Research cooperation system centered on universities, research institutes, industry associations, and leading enterprises, national balanced R&D-intensive urban system of bio-industry, and selective international research collaborations with global leading regions make a joint effort to the formation of scientific knowledge network. Local diversified industrial structure, national polycentric urban system, and widespread international business collaborations with countries based on geographical, social, and institutional proximity collectively shape business knowledge network. Educational streaming, geographically balanced national talent training system, widespread spatial flow of talents across the country, and circular flow of talents in Western Europe and North America jointly form knowledge flows.

Keywords: industrial cluster ; innovation ; knowledge network ; knowledge flow ; knowledge base ; Germany

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许吉黎, 杨帆, 薛德升. 德国汉堡生物医药集群研发和商务知识的网络结构与空间流动[J]. 地理科学, 2019, 39(2): 325-333 https://doi.org/10.13249/j.cnki.sgs.2019.02.017

Xu Jili, Yang Fan, Xue Desheng. Differentiated Knowledge Bases, Knowledge Networks, and Spatial Flows: Evidence from the Biomedical Cluster in Hamburg, Germany[J]. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2019, 39(2): 325-333 https://doi.org/10.13249/j.cnki.sgs.2019.02.017

知识经济时代,创新成为构建区域竞争力优势的动力源泉[1]。当代创新过程已由传统的线性模式转向交互模式,创新主体间的知识共享和集体学习成为实现创新的重要支撑[2,3]。产业集群为交互式学习提供了资源集聚、组织基础和制度保障,成为区域创新发展的核心载体[4,5]。由此,揭示产业集群知识溢出的空间特征对于洞察区域创新动力意义重大[6]

目前,针对知识溢出空间特征的研究,既存在知识认识视角的差异,也存在知识类型的细分[7,8]。就认识视角而言,一类是将知识视作物质客体(Knowledge as an object),即:知识是客观存在并且独立于人类理解过程的物质。颇具影响力的研究是Polanyi对知识的二元划分,隐性知识存在于个体记忆、经验和意识中,随着个体空间流动和面对面接触进行传播,编码知识是显性和输出后的知识,包括专利、论文和著作等,以文本和影像等形式传播[9]。相关研究通过专利引用[10]、明星科学家流动[11]、地方集体学习[12,13,14,15]发现,知识溢出具有地理邻近和距离衰减性。另一类视角则是将知识视作认知实践(Knowing in action),即:知识并不是与人类意识和主观理解相割裂的纯粹客体,而是人类对客观世界的一种主观认知,知识必须通过交互式学习等认知行为实践才能得以表达、流动和再生产[16]。以实践社群(Community of practice)为代表的研究成为近年来的热点,意指具有相近专业背景的知识型个体,基于信任关系和共同目标开展组织化学习的社群[17,18]。相关研究包括由特定专业化组织推动的知识再生产[19,20,21]、个体间互动学习形成的关系资本[22,23]、跨国公司的组织化学习[24]以及贸易展会等临时性集群[25]等,聚焦于认知实践推动的远距离知识网络。

与此同时,知识类型也出现分化,不同产业部门依托差异化的知识基础[8]。Asheim等将知识基础划为3类:解析型知识(Analytical knowledge)、合成型知识(Synthetic knowledge)和符号型知识(Symbolic knowledge)[26]。解析型知识通过创造新知识实现创新,体现于科学研究导向的高技术产业;合成型知识通过对已有知识的应用和结合实现创新,体现于实践应用导向的工程和服务产业;符号型知识通过以新方式重新结合已有知识实现创新,体现于文化艺术导向的创意产业[27]。依托不同知识基础的产业部门具有异质性的知识溢出机制和空间响应。相关研究包括以生物和信息等高技术产业的论文合著或专利引用来刻画全球和国家尺度的知识网络结构[22,28~30],以生产者和消费者的空间联系测度区域知识外部性[18,31],以及探讨创意社群蜂鸣效应(Buzz)的地理邻近性和环境依附性[21,32]

回顾已有研究,发现不同认识视角和不同知识基础在知识溢出空间特征上存在显著差异,当前研究大多针对单一视角或单一知识基础的分析[33,34,35]。针对同一案例,不同视角、不同类型知识溢出空间特征的对比鲜有涉及。创新型产业集群往往是复合型产业综合体,不仅包含了研发、制造和商务服务等多样化知识基础的产业活动,也具有劳动力流动、论文合著和交互式学习等多重知识溢出机制,单一认识视角或单一知识类型的研究显然难以全面揭示集群知识溢出的空间特征。综上所述,本文基于发达国家成熟的高技术产业集群——德国汉堡生物医药集群,尝试刻画不同认识视角、不同知识基础下知识溢出的空间特征,更加细致地揭示其空间格局和形成机制,一方面补充多视角、多知识类型产业集群知识溢出实证研究的不足,另一方面,为中国创新型产业集群的培育和良好知识生态的营造提供决策参考。

1 数据来源与计算方法

1.1 研究区域

德国是世界经济强国和创新高地,集群政策是其长期以来国家和区域创新战略的重要组成部分。汉堡位于德国北部,是德国第二大城市和最具经济竞争力的国家中心城市之一,创新集群建设始终作为汉堡创新与科技发展战略的核心内容。目前发展成熟的集群包括生物医药、信息技术、航空制造和物流产业。生物医药作为21世纪新兴产业的典型代表,是生物技术在制药、医疗器械和医疗服务领域的应用。基础研究、医药制造、技术服务和商务服务等依托不同知识基础的产业活动在集群发展中均扮演重要角色[36,37]。汉堡生物医药集群发起于1996年,以响应德国联邦教育与研究部组织的生物产业区域动议(BioRegio)。2004年汉堡与石勒苏益格-荷尔斯泰因州联合组成德国北部生物医药集群,目前已发展为欧洲最具竞争力的产业集群之一,2012年获评欧洲卓越集群计划的“金牌集群”(Gold Label of the European Cluster Excellence Initiative)。

1.2 数据来源

汉堡生物医药集群的成员信息来自德国北部生物医药集群门户网站的数据库(http://www.lifesciencenord.de/en/start/?L=1%20%2F),包括294家企业和22家公共机构(大学、研究机构和管理机构)。通过德国第三方企业数据库Firmenwissen(https://www.firmenwissen.de/index.html)和beAddress(https://beaddress.de/#start),结合欧洲标准产业分类获取企业所属行业部门,共计104家知识密集型商务服务业和80家高技术制造业。进一步通过企业官方网站、商务社交网站XING(https://www.xing.com/en)和Linkedln(https://de.linkedin.com/)获取各企业主要研发和商务人才信息,包括职位、个人履历和知识技能等,共计研发人才366人和商务人才224人。研发型人才为拥有博士学位,自然科学背景、研究机构的团队负责人、首席科学家、企业/机构的中高级管理层,资深专家/顾问;商务型人才为拥有硕士学位,自然或社会科学背景,包括企业/机构的高级管理层和资深专家/顾问。虽然两类人才少数重叠,由于相同个体基于研发和商务知识有不同社会网络和个人经历,所以仍然能够刻画差异化的知识网络和空间流动。

“认知实践”(Knowing in action)视角下,知识溢出源自基于信任关系和知识交流的人际社会网络。借助Linkedln中两类人才的“知识技能及认可人”板块,研发人才在生物医药研发类技能(如Research, Biology, Nanotechnology或Pharmaceutical等)、商务人才在商务管理类(如Management, Marketing, Consultancy或Venture Capital等)中选择被认可人数量最多的一项技能,作为其核心知识技能。获取研发或商务人才该项知识技能在社交网络中的认可人名单和每位认可人的个人信息(姓名、履历、工作单位和工作地点等)。以汉堡生物医药集群研发型人才与研发技能认可人的空间联系、商务型人才与商务技能认可人的空间联系分别构建研发和商务知识网络。

“物质客体”(Knowledge as an object)视角下,知识被视作个体通过学习和工作经历获取并内化于自身知识体系中,知识溢出的空间特征采用人才学习和工作经历所在地点到集群的空间流动为表征。主要借助企业官方网站中员工介绍、XING和Linkedln中2类人才的个人履历(从其大学入学开始至2017年1月),获取2类人才自大学开始至今学习和职业生涯中的单位、身份和所处地点。

1.3 计算方法

1) 知识网络的数据计算方法为:将人才与其核心知识技能的每一位认可人的网络联系强度计为1。知识技能认可人工作单位属于汉堡集群成员的计为集群内部联系;位于汉堡市域范围内,但不属于集群成员的计为集群外部、城市内部联系,城市尺度的知识联系强度为前两者之和;位于汉堡市域范围以外、德国境内的为国家尺度联系;位于德国境外的属全球尺度联系。城市、国家和全球尺度的联系强度相互独立。

2) 知识流动的数据计算方法为:将人才每一段相同学习或工作经历的地点与集群的知识流动强度计为1,若在同一单位拥有学习经历或工作职位的升迁,如本科、硕士到博士,或普通职员、部门经理到技术总监等,则该单位所在地点与汉堡集群知识流动强度相应增加1。按照与知识网络相同的方式划分集群、城市、国家和全球4个空间尺度。

3) 集群和城市尺度的知识网络和流动以组织(企业、大学、研究和中介机构)作为分析单元,将属于同一组织的人才知识联系数据汇总。国家和全球尺度以城市为分析单元,将属于同一座城市的人才知识联系数据汇总。

2 汉堡生物医药集群的知识网络

依据2类人才与核心知识技能认可人的社会网络数据,共计集群研发和商务知识联系强度分别为1 398和1 063。分析表1发现,集群研发和商务知识网络均以国家、全球尺度的远距离联系主导,占比超过80%,地方尺度的知识联系较弱;集群内部研发知识网络更为密集(集群内占比11.2%,集群外、城市内占比6.4%),城市内部商务知识网络更为密集(集群内占比6.3%,集群外、城市内占比13.7%)。

表1   研发和商务知识网络的空间分布

Table 1   Geographical distribution of scientific and business knowledge network

空间尺度研发知识网络商务知识网络
联系
强度
占比
(%)
联系
强度
占比
(%)
集群内部15711.2676.3
集群外部、城市内部906.414613.7
城市尺度(含集群内外部)24717.621320.0
国家尺度47533.843941.3
全球尺度67648.141138.7

新窗口打开

2.1 集群内部

集群内部研发知识网络呈现“中心-外围”结构(图1),地方大学和研究机构(汉堡大学、汉堡UKE医学院、德国电子加速器)、北部生命科学产业协会和跨国公司总部(Eppendorf, Beiersdorf, Evotec, CTC)位于知识网络中心,地方企业和跨国公司分支机构等位于网络外围。商务知识网络表现为离散结构,跨国公司(Eppendorf, Accellerate, IBL)、地方企业(MEDAC, IMMU)和北部生命科学产业协会之间联结小规模商务知识网络,网络整体的连接度较弱。

图1   集群研发知识与商务知识网络

Fig.1   Intra-cluster scientific knowledge and business knowledge network

2.2 城市尺度

城市内部研发知识网络结构与集群内部较为相近(图2),以大学、研究机构、跨国公司总部和产业协会为中心,与更多集群以外、城市内部的企业形成知识联系,知识传播范围扩大。商务知识网络则由集群内部的离散网络转变为以若干集群成员为中心的轴辐式网络,辐射中心包括跨国公司总部、地方企业和产业协会。城市尺度知识网络结构的转变表明:城市环境强化了研发主体的中心性,同时为商务知识交换提供信息更加富集的环境。但是,汉堡生物医药集群地方知识网络的整体连接性和联动性较弱,表现出知识联系具有显著的对象选择性和梯度扩散性。

图2   城市研发知识与商务知识网络

Fig.2   Intra-urban scientific knowledge and business knowledge network

2.3 国家尺度

国家研发知识网络表现为四大中心城市主导,研发型城市广泛联系的“中心主导-均衡辐射”型结构(图3)。“中心”包括柏林、慕尼黑、法兰克福和科隆,“均衡辐射”的联系对象包括同属德国北部的副中心城市基尔、吕贝克和不莱梅,以及其他区域科学中心如哥廷根、弗莱堡和汉诺威等。商务知识网络表现为两大中心城市主导,三大城市群支撑的“中心主导-区域联动”型结构,双中心分别为柏林和慕尼黑,三大城市群,分别是以法兰克福为中心的美因城市群、以科隆、杜塞尔多夫为中心的莱茵-鲁尔城市群和以汉诺威为中心的中北部城市群。

图3   国家研发知识与商务知识网络

Fig.3   National scientific knowledge and business knowledge network

2.4 全球尺度

全球研发知识网络与美国、英国和瑞士联系最为紧密(图4a),联系强度最高的城市包括全球顶尖创新中心(纽约和伦敦)和全球生物医药研发中心(圣地亚哥、牛津、旧金山、波士顿、苏黎世和巴塞尔等)[36,37]。全球商务知识网络在空间上更加集聚,主要分布于欧洲西北部(图4b),与丹麦、瑞士、奥地利、西班牙等国的首位城市联系紧密,如哥本哈根、苏黎世、维也纳和马德里等。总体而言,全球尺度的研发知识网络呈现以英、美、瑞三大“全球创新中心”主导,具有主体选择性的层级结构,商务知识网络表现为欧洲境内为主,少数英美中心城市连接的地理、社会、制度多维邻近的扩展结构。

图4   全球研发(a)、商务(b)知识网络

Fig.4   Global scientific (a) and business (b) knowledge network

3 汉堡生物医药集群的知识流动

基于对2类人才个人履历中学习、工作地点的分析,共计集群研发和商务知识流动强度分别为1 661和702。2类知识流动均以国家尺度为主导,强度占比50%左右,地方流动和全球流动强度整体相近(表2)。相较于知识网络,知识流动在地方尺度显著增强,而在全球尺度大幅减弱。对地理邻近表现出更强的依赖性。

表2   研发知识和商务知识的空间流动

Table 2   Scientific knowledge and business knowledge flow

空间尺度研发知识商务知识
流动强度占比(%)节点数量平均联系强度流动强度占比(%)节点数量平均联系强度
集群内部33320.0457.410515.0452.5
集群外部,城市内部784.7481.68812.5741.2
城市尺度(包含集群内外部)41124.7934,419327.51191.6
国家尺度85251.31087.933147.2913.6
全球尺度39824.01442.817825.31011.8

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3.1 集群尺度

集群内部研发知识流动呈高度极化格局,汉堡大学作为知识来源的绝对中心,流动强度高达169,占比50.8%,其次为集群的研发机构,如汉堡UKE医学院(58)、德国电子加速器(14)、莱布尼茨实验微生物学研究所(10)和热带医药研究所(7)等。商务知识流动的分布更加均衡,尽管汉堡大学仍是最重要的知识来源,但流动强度仅为28,占比26.7%,跨国公司总部(Evotec,Philips)、地方应用型大学(汉堡应用技术大学、汉堡工业大学)、产业协会和企业也占据相当比重。

3.2 城市尺度

城市尺度上,从集群以外向集群内部的研发知识流动涉及48个作用者,平均知识流动强度为1.6,仅为集群内部的1/5,流动强度大幅减小。商务知识流动涉及74个作用者,尽管平均知识流入强度仅为1.2,但是城市尺度知识流动涉及的主体数量远高于集群内部。表明本地研发知识流动更多集中于大学、研究机构和专业化企业之间,而商务知识流动则更多存在于本地不同行业企业之间。

3.3 国家尺度

国家尺度上,研发知识流动强度最高的两座城市是柏林和慕尼黑,其次是区域科学中心基尔以及德国中南部的科学中心哥廷根、海德堡和弗莱堡等。商务知识流动最高的仍是慕尼黑和柏林,其次是国家商贸中心汉诺威、法兰克福和科隆。总体而言,国家尺度两类知识流动均以中心城市为核心节点,此外,研发知识在中小城市之间具有更加广泛和均衡的流动,而商务知识则更加遵循城市等级体系而流动。

3.4 全球尺度

全球尺度上,研发知识流动以英、美、瑞的研发中心伦敦、日内瓦、波士顿、苏黎世和纽约等为主。商务知识流动除少数美国产业中心波士顿和纽约外,绝大多数位于欧洲西北部,与英国、法国、西班牙和丹麦的首位城市联系紧密,包括伦敦、巴黎、马德里和哥本哈根等。全球尺度上研发知识流动以全球产业创新中心为主导,商务知识流动以西北欧邻近国家的首位城市为主导。

4 知识网络与知识流动的形成机制

4.1 知识网络的形成机制

1) 集群内部。以大学、研究机构、产业协会和跨国公司总部为中心的研发知识网络结构表明,产业集群内部不同技术能力的科技企业、大学科研机构和中介组织之间具有紧密而广泛的研发合作联系,形成了以公私合营驱动下有利于外部技术吸收、内部技术扩散和合作的产学研体系。商务知识网络的离散结构表明集群企业在技术商业化过程中具有很强的独立性,集群企业之间的商业合作联系较弱,汉堡集群的制度安排旨在促进公共部门与私营部门的合作,而对企业之间商业合作的干预较少。

2) 城市尺度。研发知识网络的“中心-外围”结构进一步延展,集群研发中心对其他地方企业产生知识扩散,推动形成以大学、研究机构、产业协会和跨国企业为中心的城市知识生态。商务知识网络由离散结构转变为轴辐式结构,城市商务环境促进特定企业形成更加“自我中心型”(Ego-centered)网络组团,但是整体上,本地企业间商务合作程度较低,技术商业化和市场开发表现为“各自为政”。

3) 国家尺度。研发知识网络的“中心主导-均衡辐射”型结构表明国家中心城市具有领先的生物医药研发能力,并且彼此之间形成稳定的相互作用关系,同时,德国在生物医药领域的技术研发形成了均衡发展的城市体系,大量中小城市具备较强的基础研究能力和紧密的外部合作网络。商务知识网络的“中心主导-区域联动” 型结构则显现出德国中心城市具有生物医药领域产业化和商业化的龙头地位,同时依托以城市群为载体的区域内和区域间分工协作,构建了生物医药产业化的多中心格局。

4) 全球尺度。研发知识网络呈现主体选择性的层级结构,德国汉堡与美国、英国和瑞士三大全球生物产业中心之间的技术势能和互补资产是推动研发知识网络形成的重要动力。商务知识网络则呈现地理、社会和制度多维邻近的空间扩展结构,产业化导向下的商务知识联系,更加关注经济价值的产出和发展红利共享,包括法律和政策等正式制度以及惯例、语言和信任等非正式制度开始起到更为显著的作用。

4.2 知识流动的形成机制

1) 集群内部。以汉堡大学等地方研究型大学和研究机构作为研发知识来源的绝对中心,表明集群企业的研发人才供给,一方面高度依赖于本地研究型大学的人才培养和输送,另一方面,曾经的本地学习/工作经历,有力促进了人才对本地的社会嵌入和回流。商务知识流动来源主体的规模分布则更加均衡,研究型和应用型大学、中介机构和企业都占据相当比重,表明商务人才的培养具有多重目标和路径,并且集群内部公私部门之间具有较为频繁的人才流动。

2) 城市尺度。集群以外、城市内部研发知识流动的强度大幅减弱,意味着研发人才的流动主要集中于专业领域内部,集群建设具有突出的产业专业化导向,注重对专业化人力资本的投入。商务知识流动在集群以外、城市内部连接的主体数量大幅提升,表明商务人才在本地具有高频率的跨领域流动,城市环境为生物医药技术成果的产业化和关联知识吸收,提供了重要支撑。

3) 国家尺度。柏林和慕尼黑均作为两类知识来源的绝对中心,表明德国中心城市是生物医药产业人力资本的中心,并且从研究到商业领域,中心城市之间均具有紧密的人才流动。空间均衡的研发知识流动体现出德国均衡分布的研发人才培养体系和充分的空间流动,空间极化的商务知识流动显示出多中心的商务人才培养体系和集中的空间流入。

4) 全球尺度。以英国、美国和瑞士为中心的研发知识流入,其强度等同于地方尺度的知识流动,表明集群拥有大量全球高水平研发型人力资本,受益于并同时进一步强化其全球生物医药领域内的社会经济联系。商务知识流动的连接对象更加广泛,遍及西欧北美的中心城市,表明集群与其他发达国家的商业中心城市具有紧密而广泛的投资和市场等商业合作。

5 结论与讨论

本文以德国汉堡生物医药集群为例,从知识作为“认知实践”和“物质客体”两类认识视角,依托研发和商务人才的社会网络及个人履历,分别刻画了研发和商务知识的网络结构和空间流动,探讨集群知识溢出的空间特征及形成机制。

1) 德国汉堡生物医药集群的知识网络以国家和全球尺度联系主导,地方联系相对薄弱;知识流动以国家尺度主导,地方流动显著增强,全球流动减弱。表明当知识被视作一种交互式认知实践,地域约束性和距离衰减性对知识溢出的限制作用减弱,而当知识被视作一种可转移的物质客体,知识溢出对地理邻近具有更强的依赖性。

2) 无论是网络结构还是空间流动,研发和商务知识在集群、城市、国家和全球多个空间尺度均表现出联系强度和空间结构的异质性,表明不同类型知识的溢出效应具有差异化的空间需求,并且这种差异具有空间尺度敏感性。

3) 研发知识网络受到以地方大学、研究机构、产业协会和跨国企业为中心的产学研体系、德国研发能力均衡的城市体系及与全球产业中心研发合作的推动。商务知识网络受城市多样化产业基础、德国多中心城市体系及有地理、社会和制度邻近国家商业合作的推动。研发知识流动是地方大学和研究机构的人才供给、国家空间均衡的人才培养体系和全球创新中心人才流入的综合结果。商务知识流动受到教育分流制度下地方商务人才的跨领域流动,国内空间集中的商务人才培养和供给,以及西欧北美地区人才环流的共同驱动。

知识经济时代,知识的流动、结合和再生产在创新过程中的作用日益凸显,知识地理研究将为国家和区域创新发展提供科学基础和决策依据。随着经济活动专业化的加深,对知识的多重认识视角和知识基础细分成为必然趋势,有关知识溢出研究亟需更细致、全面和系统的视角以理解纷繁复杂的创新过程。本文作为揭示不同视角、不同类型知识溢出空间特征及形成机制论述的初步尝试,在数据收集和机制论述上仍显不足。今后需进一步丰富数据来源,结合企业调研深化知识溢出机制和创新效应的研究,同时开展中国案例实证,对比德国案例剖析国内集群知识溢出的一般性和独特性,因地制宜推进中国创新集群建设。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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The structure and evolution of industrial clusters: Transactions, technology and knowledgths

[J]. Research Policy, 2006, 35(7): 1018-1036.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2006.05.004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In this paper, we investigate the relationship between location patterns, innovation processes and industrial clusters. In order to do this we extend a transactions costs-based classification into a knowledge-based taxonomy of clusters, along the lines suggested by a critical revision of the main assumptions underlying most of the existing literature on spatial clusters. Our arguments show that the transactions costs approach and the innovation and technological regimes framework are broadly consistent, and that real insights into the microfoundations, nature, and evolution of clusters can be provided by these classification systems.
[7] Ibert O.

Relational distance:Sociocultural and time-spatial tensions in innovation practices

[J]. Environment and Planning A, 2010, 42(1): 187-204.

https://doi.org/10.1068/a4247      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[8] Manniche J, Moodysson J, Testa S.

Combinatorial knowledge bases: An integrative and dynamic approach to innovation studies

[J]. Economic Geography, 2017, 93(5): 480-499.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00130095.2016.1205948      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

The aims of this article are (1) to critically review the theoretical arguments and contribution of the knowledge base approach to economic geography and innovation studies, and the value added and limitations of applying it in empirical studies as reported about in the extant literatures; (2) to propose a new interpretation of the knowledge base approach by integrating it into a larger analytical framework for innovation studies that integrates individual, organizational, and contextual aspects, and to discuss the possible advances that come from using it in economic geography studies. The article dismisses the widespread taxonomical application of knowledge base conceptualizations for classification of firms, industries, and economies into fixed categories based on their dominant knowledge base characteristics. Rather it argues that the knowledge base characteristics vary not only between firms and industries but also over time and through innovation trajectories in firms and industries. The new interpretation implies that the knowledge base characteristics are defined not only by individual-level modes and rationales for knowledge creation and application and by their related spatial implications but also by managerial rganizational aspects with regard to coordination and exploitation of such knowledge dynamics. The integration of literatures from different disciplinary strands, now unified under the umbrella of a reinterpreted knowledge base approach, advances the explanatory value of the knowledge base approach in economic geography and innovation studies as well as related disciplines.
[9] Polanyi M.

The tacit dimension

[M]. New York: Doubleday, 1966.

[本文引用: 1]     

[10] Gertler M, Levitte Y.

Local nodes in global networks: The geography of knowledge flows in biotechnology innovation

[J]. Industry and Innovation, 2005, 12(4): 487-507.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13662710500361981      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The literature on innovation and interactive learning has tended to emphasize the importance of local networks, inter‐firm collaboration and knowledge flows as the principal source of technological dynamism. More recently, however, this view has come to be challenged by other perspectives that argue for the importance of non‐local knowledge flows. According to this alternative approach, truly dynamic economic regions are characterized both by dense local social interaction and knowledge circulation, as well as strong inter‐regional and international connections to outside knowledge sources and partners. This paper offers an empirical examination of these issues by examining the geography of knowledge flows associated with innovation in biotechnology. We begin by reviewing the growing literature on the nature and geography of innovation in biotechnology research and the commercialization process. Then, focusing on the Canadian biotech industry, we examine the determinants of innovation (measured through patenting activity), paying particular attention to internal resources and capabilities of the firm, as well as local and global flows of knowledge and capital. Our study is based on the analysis of Statistics Canada's 1999 Survey of Biotechnology Use and Development, which covers 358 core biotechnology firms. Our findings highlight the importance of in‐house technological capability and absorptive capacity as determinants of successful innovation in biotechnology firms. Furthermore, our results document the precise ways in which knowledge circulates, in both embodied and disembodied forms, both locally and globally. We also highlight the role of formal intellectual property transactions (domestic and international) in promoting knowledge flows. Although we document the importance of global networks in our findings, our results also reveal the value of local networks and specific forms of embedding. Local relational linkages are especially important when raising capital—and the expertise that comes with it—to support innovation. Nevertheless, our empirical results raise some troubling questions about the alleged pre‐eminence of the local in fostering innovation.
[11] Breschi S, Lissoni F.

Knowledge spillovers and local innovation systems: A critical survey

[J]. Industrial and Corporate Change, 2001, 10(4): 975-1005.

https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/10.4.975      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper re‐examines critically the growing literature on localized knowledge spillovers (LKSs), and finds the econometric evidence on the subject still lacking a firm theoretical background, especially in relation to the more recent developments in the economics of knowledge. LKSs as externalities are too narrow a concept to embrace the wide variety of knowledge transmission mechanisms that may, or may not, spread ideas and expertise while keeping the diffusion process bounded in space.
[12] Breschi S, Lissoni F.

Mobility of skilled workers and co-invention networks:An anatomy of localized knowledge flows

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 2009, 9(4): 439-468.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This article illustrates the contribution of mobile inventors and networks of inventors to the diffusion of knowledge across firms and within cities or states. It is based upon an original data set on US inventors' patent applications at the European Patent Office, in the fields of drugs, biotechnology and organic chemistry. The study combines the methodology originally proposed by Jaffe et al. (1993, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108: 577-598) with tools from social network analysis, in order to evaluate extent of the localization of knowledge flows, as measured by patent citations. After controlling for inventors' mobility and for the resulting co-invention network, the residual effect of spatial proximity on knowledge diffusion is found to be greatly reduced. We argue that the most fundamental reason why geography matters in constraining the diffusion of knowledge is that mobile researchers are not likely to relocate in space, so that their co-invention network is also localized. In the light of these results, we revisit common interpretations of localized knowledge flows as externalities.
[13] Capello R, Faggian A.

Collective learning and relational capital in local innovation processes

[J]. Regional Studies, 2005, 39(1): 75-87.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340052000320851      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[14] Jacobs W, Koster A, Van Oort F.

Co-agglomeration of knowledge-intensive business services and multinational enterprises

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 2014, 14(2): 443-475.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbs055      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[15] 胡曙红,黄丽,范蓓蕾,.

中国高校创新产出的空间溢出效应与区域经济增长——基于省域数据的空间计量经济分析

[J].地理科学,2016,36(12):1767-1776.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

采用空间计量经济学方法,基于2003-2012年中国省域高校创新产出及经济增长的统计数据,对中国省域高校创新产出的空间溢出效应及其对区域经济增长的影响进行测算与分析。结果表明:①中国省域高校创新产出存在一定的空间依赖性,空间分布的不平衡性逐步加剧,从2003年的"沿海-沿江"分布进一步演变至2012年明显集聚在长江三角洲及山东、湖北、重庆等少数省域;②空间计量模型结果表明,研究期内高校创新产出对区域经济增长的拉动作用不断提升;③计量结果显示,高校通过基础研究及产学研合作获得的创新产出对促进区域经济增长的贡献显著。

[Hu Shuhong, Huang Li, Fan Beilei et al.

Spatial spillover effects of innovative outputs of university and its impacts on regional economic growth of China: Based on spatial econometrics analysis of provincial data

. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2016, 36(12): 1767-1776.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

采用空间计量经济学方法,基于2003-2012年中国省域高校创新产出及经济增长的统计数据,对中国省域高校创新产出的空间溢出效应及其对区域经济增长的影响进行测算与分析。结果表明:①中国省域高校创新产出存在一定的空间依赖性,空间分布的不平衡性逐步加剧,从2003年的"沿海-沿江"分布进一步演变至2012年明显集聚在长江三角洲及山东、湖北、重庆等少数省域;②空间计量模型结果表明,研究期内高校创新产出对区域经济增长的拉动作用不断提升;③计量结果显示,高校通过基础研究及产学研合作获得的创新产出对促进区域经济增长的贡献显著。
[16] Ibert O.

Towards a geography of knowledge creation: The ambivalences between ‘knowledge as an object’ and ‘knowing in practice’

[J]. Regional Studies, 2007, 41(1): 103-114.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400601120346      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Ibert O. (2007) Towards a geography of knowledge creation: the ambivalences between ‘knowledge as an object’ and ‘knowing in practice’, Regional Studies 41, 103–114. This paper juxtaposes two strategies to conceive human expertise and unveils how they mould one's imagination on the spatiality of innovation processes. While the noun ‘knowledge’ signifies a rationalistic approach and entails a geography that propels an ‘argument of agglomeration’, the verb ‘knowing’ denotes a situated-in-practice understanding and inheres an ‘argument of place’. The paper discusses in how far an extension of the so far less influential practice view might complement the more traditional agglomeration accounts. The ontological discrepancies between both approaches can be used as theoretical springboards to illuminate more fully the key ambivalences of a geography of knowledge creation. Ibert O. (2007) Vers une géographie de la création des connaissances: entre ‘les connaissances comme objet’ et ‘conna06tre en pratique’, Regional Studies 41, 103–114. Cet article cherche à juxtaposer deux stratégies visant la conception des compétences humaines et à dévoiler comment elles fa04onnent l'imagination quant aux retombées spatiales du processus d'innovation. Alors que le nom ‘connaissances’ indique une approche rationaliste et nécessite une géographie qui met l'accent sur un ‘argument en faveur de la notion d'agglomération’, le verbe ‘conna06tre’ signifie une compréhension plus localisée dans la pratique et implique un ‘argument en faveur de la notion de lieu’. Cet article discute jusqu'à quel point un élargissement de ce dernier, moins suivi jusqu'ici, pourrait compléter les comptes-rendus traditionnels. Les écarts ontologiques entre les deux approches peuvent se servir de tremplin théorique afin d'éclaircir les attitudes ambivalentes à l'égard d'une géographie de la création des connaissances. Innovation69Création des connaissances69Communautés de pratique69Communautés de connaissances69Agglomération69Lieu Ibert O. (2007) Auf dem Weg zu einer Geographie der Wissenserzeugung: Die Ambivalenzen zwischen Wissen als Objekt und Wissen als Praxis, Regional Studies 41, 103–114. Der Beitrag vergleicht zwei grundlegende Strategien, Wissen konzeptionell zu fassen, und legt offen, wie diese Strategien unsere Vorstellungen der r01umlichen Organisation von Innovationsprozessen beeinflussen. W01hrend das Nomen ‘knowledge’ für eine rationalistische Strategie die Wissen als Objekt ansieht steht und eine Geographie des Lernens entwirft, die sich um ein Agglomerationsargument herum gruppiert, wird das Verb ‘knowing’ in einem Ansatz gebraucht, der Wissen als situiert in Praxis begreift und dessen Geographie durch das Orteargument umrissen werden kann. Der Beitrag diskutiert, inwieweit das bisher weniger einflussreiche Praxisverst01ndnis von Wissen st01rker gewichtet und als komplement01r zum traditionelleren Agglomerationsargument angesehen werden sollte. Die ontologischen Diskrepanzen zwischen beiden Ans01tzen werden als Ausgangspunkte genommen, um wesentliche Ambivalenzen einer Geographie der Wissenserzeugung besser zu verstehen. Innovation69Wissenserzeugung69Praktikergemeinschaften69Epistemische Gemeinschaften69Agglomeration69Ort Ibert O. (2007) Hacia una geografía de creación del conocimiento: Ambivalencias entre ‘Conocimiento como Objeto’ y ‘Conocimiento en la Práctica, Regional Studies 41, 103–114. En este ensayo se juxtaponen dos estrategias para conceptualizar la experiencia humana y se presenta de qué modo estas estrategias moldean nuestra imaginación sobre la espacialidad de los procesos de innovación. Si bien el nombre ‘conocimiento’ significa un planteamiento racionalista e implica una geografía que impulsa un ‘argumento de aglomeración’, el verbo ‘saber’ denota una compresión situada en la práctica que forma parte de ‘argumento de lugar’ Aquí analizamos en qué medida una extensión de una visión de práctica, hasta ahora menos influyente, podría complementar los relatos más tradicionales de aglomeración. Las discrepancias ontológicas entre ambos planteamientos pueden utilizarse como trampolines teóricos para dar mayor claridad a las ambivalencias principales de una geografía de creación del conocimiento. Innovación69Creación del conocimiento69Comunidades de práctica69Comunidades epistémicas69Aglomeración69Lugar
[17] Amin A, Roberts J.

Knowing in action: Beyond communities of practice

[J]. Research Policy, 2008, 37(2): 353-369.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2007.11.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper engages with the recent turn in the social sciences towards communities of practice as a driver of learning and knowledge generation across a variety of different working environments. While agreeing with the broad reinstatement of situated social practice in thinking on the dynamics of knowledge capitalism, the paper takes issue with the increasingly homogeneous and instrumentalist use of the term communities of practice to encapsulate ‘knowing in action’. On the basis of an extensive review of the available literature, the paper argues for the importance of differentiating between different varieties of knowing in action. The paper notes the differences – in organisation, spatial dynamics, innovation outcomes, and knowledge processes – between four modes: craft or task-based knowing; epistemic or high creativity knowing; professional knowing; and virtual knowing. The proposed typology is used to illustrate the insight gained from such analytical precision, through a discussion of the spatial configuration of knowing in action, long assumed to require spatial proximity. It is shown that spatial and relational proximity – which can be struck at a distance – should not be treated as one and the same.
[18] Grabher G, Ibert O.

Distance as asset? Knowledge collaboration in hybrid virtual communities

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 2014, 14(1): 97-123.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbt014      URL      [本文引用: 2]     

[19] 苗长虹.

全球-地方联结与产业集群的技术学习——以河南许昌发制品产业为例

[J].地理学报,2006,61(4):425-434.

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2006.04.009      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

以产业区理论、管制理论和全球生产网络理论为基础,以学习创新为核心,构建了一个融生产体系 与社会生产体制、制度与协调机制、地方生产网络、全球生产网络“四位一体”的学习型产业区分析框架;运用该框架.以河南许昌发制品产业集群为案例,研究了 全球-地方网络联结的方式、动态及其对技术学习的影响。研究发现,通过全球与地方生产网络的建构和有机联结.传统产业集群的技术学习是可以从“低端道路” 迈向“高端道路”的.发展学习型产业区应作为我国经济发展与技术创新的一项重大战略和政策.

[Miao Changhong.

Global-local nexus and technological learning in industrial clutser: A case study of Hair-goods industry in Xuchang, Henan Province

. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2006, 61(4):425-434.]

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2006.04.009      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

以产业区理论、管制理论和全球生产网络理论为基础,以学习创新为核心,构建了一个融生产体系 与社会生产体制、制度与协调机制、地方生产网络、全球生产网络“四位一体”的学习型产业区分析框架;运用该框架.以河南许昌发制品产业集群为案例,研究了 全球-地方网络联结的方式、动态及其对技术学习的影响。研究发现,通过全球与地方生产网络的建构和有机联结.传统产业集群的技术学习是可以从“低端道路” 迈向“高端道路”的.发展学习型产业区应作为我国经济发展与技术创新的一项重大战略和政策.
[20] 曾刚,文嫮.

上海浦东信息产业集群的建设

[J].地理学报, 2004,59(S1):59-66.

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2004.z1.009      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Under the background of economic globalization and technological revolution, industrial cluster has become a new successful model for regional economic development as a space framework of economic activity. First, this paper reviews the basic connotation and type of industrial cluster, and then expatiates the internal mechanism of the cluster from five aspects, such as level efficiency, uprightness efficiency, internal system environment, external relationship, right framework coming from equality and dependence. At the same time, the authors make a systematic research and analysis by integrating investigation data of Pudong IC industrial cluster. This paper considers that Pudong IC industrial cluster is the outcome of the industrial transfer from the multinational companies, and it is one of the largest IT-clusters in China. So at the very start, the IC industrial cluster has joined the global network. The multinational companies exert important influence on IC cluster development, but at the same time MNCs control the upgrading of the IC cluster, and impact passively the local innovations in the IC cluster. The paper points out that the IC cluster develops rapid, and has extensive external relationships. But the level relationship in the IC cluster is weak because of lack of good institutional environment. Finally, this paper concludes that only by reinforcing the local network relationships, arousing the desire for gain new knowledge collectively, paying attention to external relationships, grasping the initiatives in industrial development, and building a good institutional environment, can the IT cluster in Pudong develop well and fast in the future.

[Zeng Gang, Wen Hu.

A study on the IT cluster in Pudong of Shanghai

. Acta Geographica Sinica, 2004, 59(S1): 59-66.]

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2004.z1.009      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Under the background of economic globalization and technological revolution, industrial cluster has become a new successful model for regional economic development as a space framework of economic activity. First, this paper reviews the basic connotation and type of industrial cluster, and then expatiates the internal mechanism of the cluster from five aspects, such as level efficiency, uprightness efficiency, internal system environment, external relationship, right framework coming from equality and dependence. At the same time, the authors make a systematic research and analysis by integrating investigation data of Pudong IC industrial cluster. This paper considers that Pudong IC industrial cluster is the outcome of the industrial transfer from the multinational companies, and it is one of the largest IT-clusters in China. So at the very start, the IC industrial cluster has joined the global network. The multinational companies exert important influence on IC cluster development, but at the same time MNCs control the upgrading of the IC cluster, and impact passively the local innovations in the IC cluster. The paper points out that the IC cluster develops rapid, and has extensive external relationships. But the level relationship in the IC cluster is weak because of lack of good institutional environment. Finally, this paper concludes that only by reinforcing the local network relationships, arousing the desire for gain new knowledge collectively, paying attention to external relationships, grasping the initiatives in industrial development, and building a good institutional environment, can the IT cluster in Pudong develop well and fast in the future.
[21] Sunley P, Pinch S, Reimer S.

Design capital: Practice and situated learning in London design agencies

[J]. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 2011, 36(3): 377-392.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2011.00431.x      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

This paper considers the relations between practice, knowledge and context in design consultancies. It uses a case study of design consultancies in London based on in-depth interviews with designers working in design agencies in the city. The paper argues that the relations between design knowledge and context have been conceived in two ways. The first account emphasises the sharing of tacit knowledge in a design community marked by relatively strong and durable social ties. The second approach argues instead that design is a creative collectivity with much weaker social ties and a broader range of types of knowledge. It is argued that while both of these approaches illuminate parts of situated learning and context in design consultancies, these are actually more complex and mixed than either account recognises. Both accounts overlook the crucial importance of what are termed medium-strength ties between designers and their clients that combine market contracts with personal regard and friendship. The paper concludes by suggesting that such medium ties are increasingly important in design-based innovation systems.
[22] 汪涛,Hennemann S,Liefner I, .

知识网络空间结构演化及对NIS建设的启示——以我国生物技术知识为例

[J].地理研究,2011,30(10):1861-1872.

https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2011100012      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Knowledge network is a kind of inter-connected network that is born in the process of diffusion and communication of knowledge by the actors who create, transfer, absorb and apply knowledge, such as enterprises, universities, organizations and institutions. Network structures may exert influence on the actors and regions involved, and the potential for successful knowledge absorption and learning may be partly determined by network positions. Up to present, there are no researches about the evolution of spatial structure of knowledge network in China. In recent years, the evolutionary economic geography in Europe and USA begins to explore the spatial structure and evolution of knowledge networks from the geographical angle. But because of language and cultural barriers, the western research focused more on international knowledge flows and connections about knowledge networks in China, while the evolution of Chinese domestic knowledge networks were rarely involved. Purposes of this paper are: 1) to establish the estimation model to analyze the formation mechanism of spatial patterns of knowledge network, and to reveal the dynamic mechanism of its evolution; 2) to provide some advice to the government for policy making of national innovation system.This paper takes statistical data of the papers published in cooperation about the biotechnology in the database of Chinese Scientific and Technical Journals (Journal of Chongqing VIP) from 2000 to 2009 as data source. Based on the theory and methods of social network analysis in New Economic Sociology, it uses UCINET and ArcGIS to analyze the spatial structure and the evolution of knowledge network of biotechnology at provincial level in China. In recent 10 years, the knowledge network developed in three phases: infant stage, expansion stage and maturity stage. Accordingly, the major pattern of knowledge diffusion in the network changed from contagious diffusion to hierarchical diffusion. The spatial high-density of knowledge connections also changed from decentralization to concentration, then again to decentralization. The interactions of geographical proximity and organizational proximity between nodes impact the evolution of network. Based on the result, this paper suggests that the national innovation system should improve the biotechnology through two ways: 1) shortening the social distance of actors who create knowledge; 2) optimizing spatial disposition of innovation resources.

[Wang Tao, Hennemann S, Liefner I et al.

Spatial structure evolution of knowledge network and its impact on the NIS: Case study of biotechnology in China

. Geographical Research, 2011, 30(10): 1861-1872.]

https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2011100012      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Knowledge network is a kind of inter-connected network that is born in the process of diffusion and communication of knowledge by the actors who create, transfer, absorb and apply knowledge, such as enterprises, universities, organizations and institutions. Network structures may exert influence on the actors and regions involved, and the potential for successful knowledge absorption and learning may be partly determined by network positions. Up to present, there are no researches about the evolution of spatial structure of knowledge network in China. In recent years, the evolutionary economic geography in Europe and USA begins to explore the spatial structure and evolution of knowledge networks from the geographical angle. But because of language and cultural barriers, the western research focused more on international knowledge flows and connections about knowledge networks in China, while the evolution of Chinese domestic knowledge networks were rarely involved. Purposes of this paper are: 1) to establish the estimation model to analyze the formation mechanism of spatial patterns of knowledge network, and to reveal the dynamic mechanism of its evolution; 2) to provide some advice to the government for policy making of national innovation system.This paper takes statistical data of the papers published in cooperation about the biotechnology in the database of Chinese Scientific and Technical Journals (Journal of Chongqing VIP) from 2000 to 2009 as data source. Based on the theory and methods of social network analysis in New Economic Sociology, it uses UCINET and ArcGIS to analyze the spatial structure and the evolution of knowledge network of biotechnology at provincial level in China. In recent 10 years, the knowledge network developed in three phases: infant stage, expansion stage and maturity stage. Accordingly, the major pattern of knowledge diffusion in the network changed from contagious diffusion to hierarchical diffusion. The spatial high-density of knowledge connections also changed from decentralization to concentration, then again to decentralization. The interactions of geographical proximity and organizational proximity between nodes impact the evolution of network. Based on the result, this paper suggests that the national innovation system should improve the biotechnology through two ways: 1) shortening the social distance of actors who create knowledge; 2) optimizing spatial disposition of innovation resources.
[23] Vallance P.

Relational and dialectical spaces of knowing: knowledge, practice, and work in economic geography

[J]. Environment and Planning A, 2011, 43(5): 1098-1117.

https://doi.org/10.1068/a43186      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[24] Faulconbridge J R.

Global architects:Learning and innovation through communities and constellations of practice

[J]. Environment and Planning A, 2010, 42(12): 2842-2858.

https://doi.org/10.1068/a4311      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

It is surprising that despite widespread interest in the geographies of innovation in cultural industries, few questions have been asked about the geographies of innovation in architecture. Particularly relevant to global architects are debates about the way stretched relational spaces and ‘global’ communities of practice connect individuals, firms and regions into networks of learning that ‘perforate’ scales. This paper seeks to apply such debates to the case of global architects and to examine the spatiality of the practices that allow learning and lead to innovation in their work. It is shown that global architects participate in ‘local’ communities of practice that rely on face-to-face interaction, talk and ‘buzz’. They are also part of ‘global’ constellations of practice that rely on forms of circulation, in particular travel by architects and the circulation of texts and images in the media, which facilitate learning through human – non-human interactions. It is, therefore, suggested that in order to more effectively analyse the geographies of learning and innovation – in architecture but also other industries - focus needs to fall on both the geography of talk/buzz and communities of practice and the geography of human – non-human interactions and constellations of practice.
[25] Maskell P.

Accessing remote knowledge-the roles of trade fairs, pipelines, crowdsourcing and listening posts

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 2014, 14(5SI): 883-902.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbu002      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Work on clusters during the last few decades convincingly demonstrates enhanced opportunities for local growth and entrepreneurship, but external upstream knowledge linkages are often overlooked or taken for granted. This article is an attempt to remedy this situation by investigating why and how young, single-site firms search for distant sources of complementary competences. The discussion is positioned within a comprehensive framework that allows a systematic investigation of the approaches available to firms engaged in globally extended learning. By utilizing the distinction between problem awareness (what remote knowledge is needed?) and source awareness (where does this knowledge reside?) the article explores the relative merits and inherent limitations of pipelines, listening posts, crowdsourcing and trade fairs to acquire knowledge and solutions from geographically and relationally remote sources.
[26] Asheim T, Gertler M.Regional innovation systems and the geographical foundations of innovation[M]//J Fagerberg, D Mowery, R Nelson. The Oxford Handbook of Innovation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2005.

[本文引用: 1]     

[27] Asheim T,Coenen L,Vang J.

Face-to-face, buzz, and knowledge bases: Sociospatial implications for learning, innovation, and innovation policy

[J]. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 2007, 25(5): 655-670.

https://doi.org/10.1068/c0648      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[28] 李丹丹,汪涛,魏也华,.

中国城市尺度科学知识网络与技术知识网络结构的时空复杂性

[J].地理研究,2015,34(3):525-540.

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201503011      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

知识在产业集聚、区域创新中的地位越来越突出,城市知识储量及其在区域知识网络中的地位对城市的综合竞争力有重要影响。学术论文合作与专利合作是知识溢出的体现形式,是科学和技术发展的重要成果,也是度量区域创新能力的主要指标。以2000-2009年中国生物技术领域合著论文和共同申请专利的信息为原始数据,分别构建中国城市间科学知识网络(scientific knowledge network,SKN)与技术知识网络(technological knowledge network,TKN)。运用复杂网络与地学空间分析方法,从整体网络结构特征、择优链接性、中心城市及其自我网络的空间特征等方面进行分析,探究知识溢出的时空复杂性。研究表明:1 SKN和TKN具有无标度网络特征;SKN节点度数的异质性高于TKN。2两种网络均呈异配性,即城市选择合作对象存在明显择优链接性,知识溢出具有粘着性和空间依赖性。3 SKN中心城市具有明显的等级结构,空间分布总体呈"大分散小集聚"特点;TKN中心城市层级结构不明显,尚未形成明显极化中心。4 SKN中心城市自我网络的合作空间,由最初的沿海省会城市间的合作转向长三角、珠三角、京津冀等区域间和沿海城市与内陆城市间的合作,区域间知识溢出明显;TKN中心城市自我网络仍多分布于沿海城市和少数中西部省会城市,区域间知识溢出不明显。5 SKN中心城市及其自我网络的时空演变存在等级扩散和传染扩散的现象,符合时空梯度推移规律,且空间等级梯度逐渐向扁平化转变;TKN中心城市及其自我网络的时空演变以等级扩散为主,时空梯度推移现象不明显。研究结论为量化知识溢出及知识溢出网络结构的时空演化过程提供新的研究视角,对城市创新政策的制定有一定借鉴意义。

[Li Dandan, Wang Tao, Wei Yehua et al.

Spatial and temporal complexity of scientific knowledge network and technological knowledge network on China’s urban scale

. Geographical Research, 2015, 34(3): 525-540.]

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201503011      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

知识在产业集聚、区域创新中的地位越来越突出,城市知识储量及其在区域知识网络中的地位对城市的综合竞争力有重要影响。学术论文合作与专利合作是知识溢出的体现形式,是科学和技术发展的重要成果,也是度量区域创新能力的主要指标。以2000-2009年中国生物技术领域合著论文和共同申请专利的信息为原始数据,分别构建中国城市间科学知识网络(scientific knowledge network,SKN)与技术知识网络(technological knowledge network,TKN)。运用复杂网络与地学空间分析方法,从整体网络结构特征、择优链接性、中心城市及其自我网络的空间特征等方面进行分析,探究知识溢出的时空复杂性。研究表明:1 SKN和TKN具有无标度网络特征;SKN节点度数的异质性高于TKN。2两种网络均呈异配性,即城市选择合作对象存在明显择优链接性,知识溢出具有粘着性和空间依赖性。3 SKN中心城市具有明显的等级结构,空间分布总体呈"大分散小集聚"特点;TKN中心城市层级结构不明显,尚未形成明显极化中心。4 SKN中心城市自我网络的合作空间,由最初的沿海省会城市间的合作转向长三角、珠三角、京津冀等区域间和沿海城市与内陆城市间的合作,区域间知识溢出明显;TKN中心城市自我网络仍多分布于沿海城市和少数中西部省会城市,区域间知识溢出不明显。5 SKN中心城市及其自我网络的时空演变存在等级扩散和传染扩散的现象,符合时空梯度推移规律,且空间等级梯度逐渐向扁平化转变;TKN中心城市及其自我网络的时空演变以等级扩散为主,时空梯度推移现象不明显。研究结论为量化知识溢出及知识溢出网络结构的时空演化过程提供新的研究视角,对城市创新政策的制定有一定借鉴意义。
[29] 周灿,曾刚,王丰龙,.

中国电子信息产业创新网络与创新绩效研究

[J].地理科学,2017,35(5):661-671.

URL      摘要

采用国家知识产权局1985~2013年中国电子信息产业联合申请发明专利信息数据,借助Ucinet、ArcGIS、Stata等分析工具,对中国电子信息产业创新网络特征、结构、演化、绩效进行了分析。研究发现:(1)知名高校和大型企业是中国电子信息产业创新网络重要的科学知识源和技术知识源,也是创新合作优先连接主体,与美国跨国公司、西欧中小企业是创新网络科技知识源的特点不同;(2)创新网络呈现"核心-边缘"模式,创新网络结构的"小世界网络"特征越来越明显;(3)本市、境外是创新合作最重要的空间载体,地理邻近有助于隐性知识交流,在国内合作创新网络构建中发挥着重要作用,技术邻近是促成境外合作创新的重要基础,进一步验证了Bathelt等学者倡导的关系经济地理学假说;(4)提高网络地位、占据结构洞位置能够提升主体创新绩效;(5)创新网络内部作用机理的地域差异明显,网络结构根植性对发达地区创新一般有负面影响,地理邻近对发达地区创新主体的创新绩效影响不显著,但地理邻近却有利于欠发达中西部地区创新主体间的隐性知识交流,有助于创新绩效的提高。因而,应引入"网络资本"来分析网络主体的创新绩效,弥补中心地理论中基于规模等级分析主体创新能力的传统做法。

[Zhou Can, Zeng Gang, Wang Fenglong et al.

Innovation network structure and innovation performance: A study of China’s electronic information industry

. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2017, 37(5): 661-671.]

URL      摘要

采用国家知识产权局1985~2013年中国电子信息产业联合申请发明专利信息数据,借助Ucinet、ArcGIS、Stata等分析工具,对中国电子信息产业创新网络特征、结构、演化、绩效进行了分析。研究发现:(1)知名高校和大型企业是中国电子信息产业创新网络重要的科学知识源和技术知识源,也是创新合作优先连接主体,与美国跨国公司、西欧中小企业是创新网络科技知识源的特点不同;(2)创新网络呈现"核心-边缘"模式,创新网络结构的"小世界网络"特征越来越明显;(3)本市、境外是创新合作最重要的空间载体,地理邻近有助于隐性知识交流,在国内合作创新网络构建中发挥着重要作用,技术邻近是促成境外合作创新的重要基础,进一步验证了Bathelt等学者倡导的关系经济地理学假说;(4)提高网络地位、占据结构洞位置能够提升主体创新绩效;(5)创新网络内部作用机理的地域差异明显,网络结构根植性对发达地区创新一般有负面影响,地理邻近对发达地区创新主体的创新绩效影响不显著,但地理邻近却有利于欠发达中西部地区创新主体间的隐性知识交流,有助于创新绩效的提高。因而,应引入"网络资本"来分析网络主体的创新绩效,弥补中心地理论中基于规模等级分析主体创新能力的传统做法。
[30] 林兰,曾刚,吕国庆.

基于创新“二分法”的中国装备制造业创新网络研究

[J].地理科学,2017,37(10):1469-1477.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Lin Lan, Zeng Gang, Lyu Guoqing.

Innovation network of the Chinese equipment manufacturing industry: Based on the dichotomy of innovation

. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2017, 37(10): 1469-1477.]

[本文引用: 1]     

[31] Shearmur R, Doloreux D.

Knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) use and user innovation: High-order services, geographic hierarchies and internet use in Quebec’s manufacturing sector

[J]. Regional Studies, 2015, 49(10): 1654-1671.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.870988      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

S hearmur R. and D oloreux D. Knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) use and user innovation: high-order services, geographic hierarchies and internet use in Quebec's manufacturing sector, Regional Studies . Geographic proximity between users and suppliers of knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) provides no advantage in terms of innovation performance. This paper first establishes that it is those KIBS most closely associated with innovation that exhibit the highest mean distance to their users. It then shows that there is no connection between distance to KIBS suppliers and propensity to innovate. These results point to a Christallerian logic whereby innovators seek out KIBS (irrespective of distance), but whereby mean distances tend to be greater between users and innovation-related KIBS suppliers (located in central places), reflecting the different geographies of manufacturing users and service suppliers.
[32] Tether B S, Li Q C, Mian A.

Knowledge-bases, places, spatial configurations and the performance of knowledge-intensive professional service firms[J]

. Journal of Economic Geography, 2012(12): 969-1001.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbs015      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

No abstract is available for this item.
[33] Bathelt H,Malmberg A,Maskell P.

Clusters and knowledge:Local buzz, global pipelines and the process of knowledge creation

[J]. Progress in Human Geography, 2004, 28(1): 31-56.

https://doi.org/10.1191/0309132504ph469oa      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[34] 吕拉昌,梁政骥,黄茹.

中国主要城市间的创新联系研究

[J].地理科学,2015,35(1):30-37.

URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

<p>对国内外城市创新联系综述及理论分析的基础上,通过一组测度指标,界定了城市外向创新联系规模,采用引力模型,测度了中国主要城市间的创新联系强度及格局。研究表明:中国主要城市创新联系格局基本为东强西弱,东部地区城市创新联系格局显现出以上海、南京、杭州为顶角,以北京、天津,以广州、深圳为2 个底角的创新联系&ldquo;金三角&rdquo;。城市创新联系在空间上呈现明显的等级性:北京、上海、广州、深圳、天津、重庆等与中国的许多城市有广泛的创新联系,具有全国创新影响力;南京、杭州、武汉、郑州、济南、青岛、大连、西安等成为地区性的城市创新联系节点,具有区域性的创新影响力。在创新联系较强的东部沿海主要的经济圈,珠江三角洲经济圈城市间创新联系最强,但外向辐射力有限;长江三角洲经济圈内部创新联系较强,并与环渤海经济圈有较强的创新联系, 环渤海经济圈内部北京、天津、唐山具有较强的创新联系,外向辐射以长江三角洲的城市为主。对中国创新联系格局规律的揭示,更进一步强化了中国创新城市体系中城市的作用,并为规划与建立中国创新都市圈提供依据。</p>

[Lyu Lachang, Liang Zhengji, Huang Ru.

The innovation linkage among Chinese major cities

. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2015, 35(1): 30-37.]

URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

<p>对国内外城市创新联系综述及理论分析的基础上,通过一组测度指标,界定了城市外向创新联系规模,采用引力模型,测度了中国主要城市间的创新联系强度及格局。研究表明:中国主要城市创新联系格局基本为东强西弱,东部地区城市创新联系格局显现出以上海、南京、杭州为顶角,以北京、天津,以广州、深圳为2 个底角的创新联系&ldquo;金三角&rdquo;。城市创新联系在空间上呈现明显的等级性:北京、上海、广州、深圳、天津、重庆等与中国的许多城市有广泛的创新联系,具有全国创新影响力;南京、杭州、武汉、郑州、济南、青岛、大连、西安等成为地区性的城市创新联系节点,具有区域性的创新影响力。在创新联系较强的东部沿海主要的经济圈,珠江三角洲经济圈城市间创新联系最强,但外向辐射力有限;长江三角洲经济圈内部创新联系较强,并与环渤海经济圈有较强的创新联系, 环渤海经济圈内部北京、天津、唐山具有较强的创新联系,外向辐射以长江三角洲的城市为主。对中国创新联系格局规律的揭示,更进一步强化了中国创新城市体系中城市的作用,并为规划与建立中国创新都市圈提供依据。</p>
[35] 何舜辉,杜德斌,焦美琪,.

中国地级以上城市创新能力的时空格局演变及影响因素分析

[J].地理科学,2017,37(7):1014-1022.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于中国287个地级以上城市的专利、论文数据测度中国城市创新能力,揭示2001~2014年中国创新格局的时空演变特征,并分析城市创新能力的影响因素。研究表明:(1)中国创新格局刻有明显的经济地带性差异的烙印,呈"东-中-西"逐渐衰减的态势,且随着时间推移,东部的压倒性地位进一步强化。(2)基尼系数呈现先增后降的倒U型变化趋势,反映了整体由极化增长向优化均衡发展的空间过程。东部地区基尼系数维持相对稳定;创新能力较弱的中西部地区,城市间的创新能力差异却在不断缩小。(3)高水平和较高水平的创新城市分布具有很强的经济依赖性,广泛分布于发达城市,而中等水平以上的城市呈集聚分布态势,表现出明显的"集群化"特征,与中国主要城市群的分布高度吻合。(4)Moran’s I值均为正,并呈不断上升之势,反映了城市间显著的空间相关性。高高集聚区主要分布于京津冀、长三角和珠三角地区,而中部和西部省会城市作为区域性的创新极,对周围城市的创新带动效应并不明显,辐射作用有限。(5)经济基础、人力资本、教育水平、FDI规模、制度因素、基础设施6方面因素不同程度地影响城市创新能力的形成。其中经济基础和人力资本因素影响较大,教育水平和制度因素次之,而FDI规模和基础设施水平对区域的创新能力影响相对较小,但仍表现为正向影响。

[He Shunhui, Du Debin, Jiao Meiqi et al.

Spatial-temporal characteristics of urban innovation capability and impact factors analysis in China

. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 2017, 37(7): 1014-1022.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于中国287个地级以上城市的专利、论文数据测度中国城市创新能力,揭示2001~2014年中国创新格局的时空演变特征,并分析城市创新能力的影响因素。研究表明:(1)中国创新格局刻有明显的经济地带性差异的烙印,呈"东-中-西"逐渐衰减的态势,且随着时间推移,东部的压倒性地位进一步强化。(2)基尼系数呈现先增后降的倒U型变化趋势,反映了整体由极化增长向优化均衡发展的空间过程。东部地区基尼系数维持相对稳定;创新能力较弱的中西部地区,城市间的创新能力差异却在不断缩小。(3)高水平和较高水平的创新城市分布具有很强的经济依赖性,广泛分布于发达城市,而中等水平以上的城市呈集聚分布态势,表现出明显的"集群化"特征,与中国主要城市群的分布高度吻合。(4)Moran’s I值均为正,并呈不断上升之势,反映了城市间显著的空间相关性。高高集聚区主要分布于京津冀、长三角和珠三角地区,而中部和西部省会城市作为区域性的创新极,对周围城市的创新带动效应并不明显,辐射作用有限。(5)经济基础、人力资本、教育水平、FDI规模、制度因素、基础设施6方面因素不同程度地影响城市创新能力的形成。其中经济基础和人力资本因素影响较大,教育水平和制度因素次之,而FDI规模和基础设施水平对区域的创新能力影响相对较小,但仍表现为正向影响。
[36] Kraetke S.

Global Pharmaceutical and biotechnology firms’ linkages in the world city network

[J]. Urban Studies, 2014, 51(6): 1196-1213.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098013494420      URL      [本文引用: 2]     

[37] Cooke P.

Regional knowledge capabilities, embeddedness of firms and industry organisation: Bioscience megacentres and economic geography

[J]. European Planning Studies, 2004, 12(5): 625-641.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0965431042000219987      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Changes in epistemology in biosciences are generating important spatial effects. The most notable of these is the emergence of a few 'Bioscience Megacentres' for basic and applied bioscience medical and clinical research (molecular, post-genomic, proteomics, etc.), biotechnology research, training in these and related fields, academic entrepreneurship and commercial exploitation by clusters of 'drug discovery' start-up and spin-off companies, along with specialist venture capital and other innovation system support services. Large pharmaceutical firms that used to lead such knowledge generation and exploitation processes are becoming increasingly dependent upon innovative drug solutions produced in such clusters, and megacentres are now the predominant source of such commercial knowledge. 'Big pharma' is seldom at the heart of megacentres such as those the paper will argue are found in about four locations each in the USA and Europe, but remains important for some risk capital ('milestone payments'), marketing, and distribution of drugs discovered. The embedding of these processes also creates major new regional disparities, which some regional governances have recognised, causing them to develop responsibilities for regional science policy and funding to offset spatial biases intrinsic in traditional national (and in the EU, supranational) research funding regimes. Responses follow a variety of models ranging from market-following to both regionalised (decentralising by the centre) and 'regionalist' (ground-up); in each case, the role of megacentres is justified in health terms. But their role in assisting fulfilment of regional economic growth visions is also clearly perceived and pronounced in policy terms.

/